Dosage Forms Abbreviations

Dosage Forms
amp	ampule
buccal	buccal tablet
cap	capsule
Cm	cream
el or elix	Elixir
EC tab	Enteric-coated tablet
expect	expectorant
gtt	drops
inj	injection
lot	Lotion
loz	Lozenge
MDI	Metered Dose inhaler
sol	solution
spry	Spray
supp	suppository
susp	suspension
syr	syrup
tab	tablet
tbsp	Tablespoon
TDS	transdermal delivery system
tsp	Teaspoon
TPN	total parenteral nutrition
pulv	poweder
Ung or oint	ointment

Route of Administration Abbreviations

Route of Administration
OD	Right Eye
OS	Left Eye
OU	Both Eyes
AD	Right Ear
AS	Left Ear
AU	Both Ears
PO	By Mouth
SL	Sublingual
NG or NGT	Feeding Tube through the nose into stomach
IEN or NAS	by Nostril
Bucc	Held Inside the Cheek
S&S	Swish & Swallow
HHN	Hand Held Nebulizer
PR	Into the Rectum
PV	Into the Vagina
SubQ, SC, SQ	Immediately under the skin
Top	Topical
GT or PGT	Feeding Tube through the abdominal wall into stomach
JT	Feeding Tube through the small Intestine
IA	Into a(n) artery or joint
IC	Into the heart muscle
ID	Into the top layer of the skin
IT	Into the Trachea
IM	Into a muscle
IV	Into a vein
INH	Inhalant

The most difficult pharmacy abbreviations to remember are the eyes and ears. They are very easy to mix up. Try this: When you see the O, think of "OCULAR". For the A, remember it as "AUDIO". For the letter U, think of "UNITED" - all parts.

Frequency of Dosage Abbreviations

Also known as "Sig Codes", Prescription abbreviations are basically coded instructions from a health-care professional. The code is used to supply the words while Roman Numerals are sometimes used for the numbers. These should be memorized to prepare for the PTCB or ExCPT exams.

Frequency of Dosage
q	Every
qH	Every Hour
qAM	Every Morning
qPM	Every Night
qHs	Every Bedtime
qD	Everyday
qOD	Every Other Day
qWK	Every Week
qMO	Every Month
q__o	(Q) 1°, 2°, 3°, 4°, (Every 4 Hours)
q__H	Every__Hour (Every 4 Hours)
BID	Twice a day
TID	Three times a day
QID	Four times a day
X_D	Times_Day (3x a day)
C	With
AC	Before Meal
PC	After Meal
HS	At Bedtime
PRN	As Needed
UD	As Directed
AA	Of Each
QS	Quantity Sufficient
ATC	Around the clock
ad lib.	as desired
STAT	Immediately
	Half Strength

Generic Medication Prefixes, Roots, & Suffixes Chart

Recognizing Generic Drug Names by Prefixes, Roots, and Suffixes:
Memorizing the top 200 drug names is one of the most challenging parts of studying for the PTCB of ExCPT exams.

In generic names, there are several prefix, root and suffixes that will help you to remember what the medication does.

The chart below lists some of the prefix, root and suffixes you will see when studying the top 200 drugs.

A prefix is placed at the beginning of a word to modify or change its meaning to "before." A Root is the central part of a word. Suffix is the ending part of a word that modifies the meaning of the word. Example: homeless. Root = 'home' and the suffix is 'less'.

Prefix, Root, Suffix	Drug Class
-artan	A2RB (Angiotensin 2 receptor blocker)
-asone	Corticosteroid
-azosin	Alpha Blocker
-bital	Barbiturate (sedative)
-caine	Local Anesthetic
-cillin	Penicillin Antibiotic
-cort-	Corticosteroid
-cycline	Tetracycline Antibiotic
-dipine	Calcium Channel Blocker
-floxacin	Fluoroquinolone Antibiotic
-itidine	H2Antagonist
-lax	Laxative
-mycin	Antibiotic; Antibacterial
-nazole	Antifungal
-olol	Beta Blocker
-pril	Ace Inhibitor Angiotensin (Angiotensin Converting Enzyme)
-pam	Benzodiazepines (Benzos)
-profen	NSAID
pred-	corticosteroid
-razole	PPI = Proton Pump Inhibitor
-romycin	Macrolide Antibiotic
-semide	Loop Diuretic (water pill)
-statin	Cholesterol (HG CoA Reductase Inhibitor)
-thiazide	Thiazide Diuretic (water pill)
-vir	Anti-Viral
-zodone	Antidepressant
-zolam	Benzodiazepines (Benzos)

Unfortunately, only a fraction of the top 200 drugs end in a common Generic Drug suffix. However, learning them may help you immensely to memorize the top 200 drugs.

There are plenty more common suffixes and prefixes in generic drug names. The above list is geared to apply to the Top 200 Drug name suffixes.

Extended-Release Medications

These medication dosage forms are called extended-release, sustained release, long-acting, or controlled release. Although the exact meaning of these terms differ in some respects, each of these terms implies a gradual release of medication over a long period time.

CD	Controlled-diffusion
CR	Controlled-release, continuous-release
CRT	Controlled-release tablet
LA	Long-acting
SA	Sustained-action
SR	Sustained-release, slow-relaese
TD	Time-delay
TR	Time-release
XL	Extra-long
XR	Extended-release

Top 20 Most Commonly Diagnosed Conditions

Research data shows the top 20 most common conditions diagnosed by primary care and specialist physicians. Treatment and indications are also listed.

Condition	Indications	Treatment
High blood pressure (hypertension)	Blood pressure is a measurement of the force against the walls of your arteries as your heart pumps blood through your body. Hypertension is another term used to describe high blood pressure.	ACE Inhibitor: Benazepril, Lisinopril (Prinivil), Hydrochlorothiazide/lisinopril (Zestoretic) Channel blocker: Felodipine (Plendil), Amlodipine (Norvasc), Nifedipine (Procardia) Diuretic: Triamterene, Chlorothiazide, Hydrochlorothiazide​/​losartan (Hyzaar), Chlorthalidone (Thalitone), Furosemide, Hydrochlorothiazide (Microzide) Heart medication: Nitroglycerin through the skin (Nitro-Dur) Other treatments: Irbesartan (Avapro), Metoprolol, Nadolol (Corgard), Candesartan (Atacand), Telmisartan (Micardis), Losartan (Cozaar), Valsartan (Diovan), Labetalol (Trandate), Bisoprolol (Zebeta), Carvedilol (Coreg), Spironolactone (Aldactone), Atenolol (Tenormin)
Cholesterol, HDL, Hypercholesterolemia, Hyperlipidemia, Hyperlipoproteinemia, LDL	High amounts of cholesterol in the blood. High cholesterol can limit blood flow, increasing risk of heart attack or stroke. It's detected by a blood test.	Diabetes medication: Fenofibrate (Tricor), Gemfibrozil (Lopid) Statin: Ezetimibe/simvastatin (Vytorin), Lovastatin (Mevacor), Pravastatin (Pravachol), Fluvastatin (Lescol), Simvastatin (Zocor), Atorvastatin (Lipitor) Other treatments: Niacin (Niacor), Ezetimibe (Zetia), Colestipol (Colestid)
Type 2 diabetes Also called: adult onset diabetes	Diabetes means your blood glucose, or blood sugar, levels are too high. With type 2 diabetes, the more common type, your body does not make or use insulin well.	Diabetes medication: Metformin​/​saxagliptin monohydrate, Metformin​/​rosiglitazone, Metformin​/​pioglitazone, Acarbose (Precose), Glyburide​/​metformin (Glucovance), Glipizide​/​metformin, Sitagliptin/metformin (Janumet), Glyburide (Micronase), Sitagliptin (Januvia), Glipizide (Glucotrol), Glimepiride (Amaryl), Metformin (Glucophage), Saxagliptin (Onglyza), Insulin aspart, Rosiglitazone (Avandia), Pioglitazone (Actos) Diabetes medication by injection: Insulin lispro (Humalog), Insulin, Insulin glargine (Lantus), Exenatide (Byetta), Insulin detemir (Levemir) Statin: Atorvastatin (Lipitor)
Back pain	A common, painful condition affecting the lower portion of the spine. Pain: in the back, hip, leg, tailbone, or muscle and bone. Sensory: pins and needles or sensitivity to pain. Also common: leg numbness or muscle spasms	Anti-inflammatory: Ketorolac by injection or by mouth (Toradol) Muscle relaxant: Metaxalone (Skelaxin), Methocarbamol (Robaxin), Cyclobenzaprine (Flexeril ), Carisoprodol Pain reliever: Tramadol (Ultram)
Anxiety	Severe anxiety that lasts at least six months is generally considered to be problem that might benefit from evaluation and treatment. Each anxiety disorder has different symptoms, but all the symptoms cluster around excessive, irrational fear and dread.	Antidepressants: (Prozac, Sarafem), imipramine (Tofranil), paroxetine (Paxil, Pexeva), sertraline (Zoloft) and venlafaxine (Effexor XR). Citalopram (Celexa) and escitalopram (Lexapro) Buspirone. Benzodiazepines: Alprazolam (Niravam, Xanax), chlordiazepoxide (Librium), clonazepam (Klonopin), diazepam (Valium), and lorazepam (Ativan).
Obesity	A disorder involving excessive body fat that increases the risk of health problems.	The mainstay of treatment is lifestyle changes such as diet and exercise.
Allergic rhinitis/ Seasonal allergies	An allergic response causing itchy, watery eyes, sneezing, and other similar symptoms.	Antihistamine: Levocetirizine (Xyzal), Azelastine nasally (Astelin), Desloratadine (Clarinex) Steroids: Triamcinolone, Budesonide by inhaling Steroids nasally: Budesonide, Beclomethasone (Beconase), Flunisolide, Mometasone (Nasonex), Triamcinolone acetonide (Nasacort), Fluticasone (Flonase) Other treatments: Ciclesonide nasally (Omnaris), Ipratropium nasally (Atrovent)
Reflux esophagitis/ Acid reflux	Digestive disease in which stomach acid or bile irritates the food pipe lining.	Stomach acid supressant: Pantoprazole (Protonix), Dexlansoprazole (Dexilant), Rabeprazole (Aciphex) Other treatments: Sucralfate (Carafate)
Respiratory Diseases	A group of lung diseases that block airflow and make it difficult to breathe.	Steroids: Fluticasone/salmeterol by mouth Steroids by inhaling: Budesonide​/​formoterol (Symbicort), Budesonide, Fluticasone/salmeterol, Fluticasone, Beclomethasone Other treatments: Arformoterol by inhaling (Brovana), Formoterol by inhaling (Foradil), Ipratropium by inhaling (Atrovent), Salmeterol by inhaling or by mouth, Acetylcysteine, Indacaterol by inhaling, Albuterol​/​ipratropium by inhaling (Duoneb), Tiotropium bromide by inhaling (Spiriva), Albuterol by inhaling (Accuneb) or into the windpipe, Levalbuterol by inhaling (Xopenex)
Hypothyroidism /Underactive thyroid	A condition in which the thyroid gland doesn't produce enough thyroid hormone.	Levothyroxine (Synthroid)
Visual Refractive Errors/ Farsightedness, Hyperopia, Myopia, Nearsightedness	Refractive errors are vision problems that happen when the shape of the eye keeps you from focusing well.	Eyeglasses, Contact Lenses, Refractive Surgery
Osteoarthritis/ OA, degenerative joint diseas	A type of arthritis that occurs when flexible tissue at the ends of bones wears down.	Anti-inflammatory: Indometacin (Indocin), Etodolac (Lodine), Meloxicam (Mobic), Piroxicam (Feldene), Diclofenac by mouth or to the affected area (Voltaren), Celecoxib (Celebrex) Pain reliever: Tramadol (Ultram) Steroids: Cortisone
Fibromyalgia/myositis, neuritis, fibrositis	Widespread muscle pain and tenderness.	Muscle relaxant: Cyclobenzaprine (Flexeril ) Other treatments: Paroxetine (Paxil), Fluoxetine (Prozac), Milnacipran (Savella), Pregabalin (Lyrica), Duloxetine (Cymbalta), Venlafaxine (Effexor), Gabapentin (Neurontin), Sertraline (Zoloft), Amitriptyline
Malaise and fatigue	Malaise is a generalized feeling of discomfort, illness, or lack of well-being. Fatigue (feeling tired) occurs with malaise in many diseases. Along with malaise, you can have a feeling of not having enough energy to do usual activities.
Joint Pain	Conditions that can lead to painful joints, include osteoarthritis, rheumatoid arthritis, bursitis, gout, strains, sprains, and other injuries.	Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDS) such as ibuprofen or naproxen may help relieve pain and swelling.
Acute laryngopharyngitis/ Laryngitis	An inflammation of the voice box from overuse, irritation, or infection.	Anti-inflammatory: Ibuprofen (Advil) Pain reliever: Acetaminophen (Tylenol) Stomach acid supressant: Omeprazole (Prilosec), Esomeprazole (Nexium), Lansoprazole (Prevacid) Other treatments: Calcium carbonate (Tums)
Acute maxillary sinusitis/ sinus infection	A condition in which the cavities around the nasal passages become inflamed.	Antibiotics: Amoxicillin​/​clavulanic acid (Augmentin), Cefuroxime, Amoxicillin (Amoxil), Cefprozil, Moxifloxacin, Cefdinir, Levofloxacin, Ciprofloxacin, Azithromycin (Zithromax), Clarithromycin (Biaxin) Steroids nasally: Budesonide, Beclomethasone (Beconase), Flunisolide, Mometasone (Nasonex), Fluticasone (Flonase)
Major depression/ clinical depression	A mood disorder causing a persistent feeling of sadness and loss of interest.	Escitalopram (Lexapro), Selegiline (Eldepryl), Aripiprazole (Abilify), Bupropion (Wellbutrin), Imipramine (Tofranil-PM), Paroxetine (Paxil), Desvenlafaxine, Fluoxetine (Prozac), Trazodone (Desyrel), Nortriptyline (Pamelor), Buspirone, Amitriptyline, Fluvoxamine, Citalopram (Celexa), Venlafaxine (Effexor), Mirtazapine (Remeron), Sertraline (Zoloft), Duloxetine (Cymbalta)
Acute bronchitis/ bronchial infection	Inflammation of the lining of bronchial tubes, which carry air to and from the lungs.	Antibiotics: Amoxicillin (Amoxil), Azithromycin (Zithromax), Amoxicillin​/​clavulanic acid (Augmentin) Pain reliever: Codeine Steroids: Fluticasone by inhaling Other treatments: Prednisone (Deltasone), Albuterol by inhaling (Accuneb)
Asthma	A condition in which a person's airways become inflamed, narrow and swell, and produce extra mucus.	Steroids: Methylprednisolone by injection Steroids by inhaling: Beclomethasone, Fluticasone, Fluticasone/salmeterol, Budesonide, Flunisolide (Aerospan), Budesonide​/​formoterol (Symbicort) Other treatments: Levalbuterol, Tiotropium bromide, Albuterol​/​ipratropium by inhaling (Duoneb), Zileuton (Zyflo), Zafirlukast (Accolate), Pirbuterol, Salmeterol by inhaling, Prednisone (Deltasone), Albuterol, Ipratropium by inhaling (Atrovent)

Guidelines for Filling Prescription Orders

Prescription Order Expiration Dates: A prescription order must be dated, and have an appropriate expiration date based on the type of drug ordered. If it's not filled in time, the script expires.

Refills: If refills are allowed by the prescriber, it will be noted on the prescription. However, there are boundaries and limitations.

Generic Substitutions: Generic drug substitutions may not be used unless the prescriber has authorized it. Generic substitutions may only be used if the prescriber has requested or authorized them.

DEA Controlled Drug Prescriptions Must contain: 

• Date of prescription issue 
• Patient's name and address
• Practitioner's name, address, and phone number
• Drug name 
• Drug strength
• Exact quantity prescribed
• Have a valid DEA Number
• Complete directions for use
• Number of refills authorized
• Dosage form and instructions

In addition Schedule II drug prescriptions:

• Must be manually signed by the practitioner. No exceptions.
• May not be Faxed or Called in, except for a valid emergency.
• May not have any refills.

New York State VALID PRESCRIPTION REQUIREMENTS

	Prescription order expiration dates		Refills
	Federal	State Ex. NY	Federal	State Ex. NY
DEA Sch II	No Expiration	30 days	NO REFILLS ALLOWED	NO REFILLS ALLOWED
DEA Sch III thru V	6 Months	6 Months	up to 5 times, but only 5 times	up to 5 times within 6 months
Legend Drugs	12 Months	No Expiration	up to 12 Months worth	up to 3 Months worth

Routes of Medication Administration

A route of administration in pharmacology and toxicology is the path by which a drug, fluid, poison, or other substance is taken into the body. Routes of administration are generally classified by the location at which the substance is applied. Common examples include oral and intravenous administration. Routes can also be classified based on where the target of action is. Action may be topical (local), enteral (system-wide effect, but delivered through the gastrointestinal tract), or parenteral (systemic action, but delivered by routes other than the GI tract).

Route	Methods	Description	Advantages	Disadvantages
Oral	Oral	Through the mouth	It is convenient. It is the cheapest available route. It is easy to use. It is safe and acceptable.	Less amount of drug reaches the target tissue. Some of the drug is destroyed by gastric juices. Absorption has to take place which is slow, so is not preferred during emergencies. It might cause gastric irritation. It might be objectionable in taste. It might cause discoloration of teeth.
	Buccal	Inside the cheek
	Lingual	On the tongue
	Sublingual	Under gums	Rapid absorption takes place. Drug is dissolved easily. Drug enters the blood directly. Less first pass effect. Spitting out of the drug removes its effect.	This method is inconvenient. Irritation of the mucous membrane might occur. Person may swallow the drug. Might be unpleasant in taste.
	Transmucosal	Across mucous membrane
Enteral	Enteral	By way of the intestine
	Nasogastric (Tube)	A feeding tube inserted through the nose into the stomach (NG or NGT)
	Gastrostomy (tube), percutaneous endoscopic gastrostomy (tube)	A feeding tube inserted through the abdominal wall into the stomach (GT or PEG)
	Jejunostomy (tube)	A feeding tube inserted through the jejunum (small intestine) (JT)
Inhalation	Inhalation	Drawn through the mouth into the lungs	Rapid absorption takes place. Rapid onset of action takes place. This route has minimum side effects. No first pass effect takes place. This method is easy. Fewer doses is required.	Special apparatus is required. Irritation of the respiratory tract may take place. Cooperation of the patient is required. Airway must be patent.
Parenteral	Parenteral	By passing the gastrointestinal tract. Not delivered via the intestinal tract.	Parenteral route is rapid. It is useful for uncooperative patients. It is useful for unconscious patients. Inactivation by GIT enzymes is avoided. First pass effect is avoided*. Bioavailability is 100%.	Skill is required. It is painful. This method is expensive. It is less safe.
	Implant	A device inserted into or under the skin
	Intra-arterial	Into an artery (AI)
	Intra-articular	Into a joint (AI)
	Intracardiac	Into the heart muscle (IC)
	Intradermal	Into the top lay of the skin (ID)
	Intratracheal, endotrcheal	Into the trachea (IT)
	intramuscular	Into a muscle (IM)	Absorption is rapid than subcutaneous route. Oily preparations can be used. Irritative substances might be given Slow releasing drugs can be given by this route.	Using this route might cause nerve or vein damage.
	Intraosseous	Into the marrow of a bone
	intraperitoneal	Into the peritoneal (abdominal) cavity
	Intrapleural	Into the pleura (sac that surround the lungs)
	intrathecal	Into space around the spinal cord
	intrauterine	Into the uterus
	intravenous	Into a vein (IV)	Immediate action takes place. This route is preferred in emergency situations. This route is preferred for unconscious patients. Titration of dose is possible. Large volume of fluids might be injected by this route. Diluted irritant might be injected. Absorption is not required. No first pass effect takes place.* Blood plasma or fluids might be injected.	There is no retreat. This method is more risky. Sepsis-Infection might occur. Phlebitis(Inflammation of the blood vessel) might occur. Infiltration of surrounding tissues might result. This method is not suitable for oily preparations. This method is not suitable for insoluble preparations.
	intraventricular	Into the ventricles, or cavities, of the brain
	intravesicular	Into the urinary bladder
	intravitreal or intravitreous	Into the eye
	Subcutaneous	Immediately under the skin (SubQ, SC, SQ)	Absorption is slow and constant. It is hygienic.	It might lead to abscess formation. Absorption is limited by blood flow.
Nasal		Into the nose
Ophthalmic		Into the eye
Otic, aural		Into the ear
Percutaneous		Through the skin
Rectal		Through the anus into the retum	This route is preferred in unconscious or uncooperative patients. This route avoids nausea or vomiting. Drug cannot be destroyed by enzymes. This route is preferred if drug is irritant.	This route is generally not acceptable by the patients. Locally acting drugs include glycerin and Bisacodyl suppository. Systemic acting drugs include Indomethacin (anti inflammatory) and aminophyllin (bronchodilator). Retention enema is diagnostic and is used for finding the pathology of lower intestines. Drugs given by rectal route have 50% first pass metabolism.*
Topical		Applied to the skin or mucous membranes
Transdermal		Through the skin
Vaginal		Into the vagina

*First Pass Effect: First pass effect is the term used for hepatic metabolism of drug when absorbed and delivered through portal blood. Greater the first pass effect, less amounts of the drug reach the systemic circulation.

Time of Action using Different Routes of Administration

Route of Administration	Delay time for Action
Intravenous route	30-60 seconds
Intraosseous route	30-60 seconds
Endotracheal inhalation	2-3 minutes
Sublingual route	3-5 minutes
Intramuscular route	10-20 minutes
Rectal route	5-30 minutes
Ingestion	30-90 minutes

Medication Dosage Forms

The term dosage form can also sometimes refer only to the chemical formulation of a drug product's constituent drug substance(s) and any blends involved, without considering matters beyond that (like how it's ultimately configured as a consumable product such as a capsule, patch, etc.). Because of the somewhat vague boundaries and unclear overlap of these terms and certain variants and qualifiers thereof within the pharmaceutical industry, caution is often advisable when conversing with someone who may be unfamiliar with another person's use of the term.

Depending on the method/route of administration, dosage forms come in several types. These include many kinds of liquid, solid, and semisolid dosage forms. Common dosage forms include pill, tablet, or capsule, drink or syrup, and natural or herbal form such as plant or food of sorts, among many others. Notably, the route of administration (ROA) for drug delivery is dependent on the dosage form of the substance in question. A liquid dosage form is the liquid form of a dose of a chemical compound used as a drug or medication intended for administration or consumption.

A 1999 Food and Drug Administration Draft Guidance for Industry states: "A dosage form is the way of identifying the drug in its physical form. In determining dosage form, FDA examines such factors as (1) physical appearance of the drug product, (2) physical form of the drug product prior to dispensing to the patient, (3) the way the product is administered, (4) frequency of dosing, and (5) how pharmacists and other health professionals might recognize and handle the product."

Liquid Medication Dosage Forms
Solutions	Aqueous (water-based)
	Gargles
	Oral Rinses
	Washes & Mouthwashes
	Douches
	Irrigants
	Enemas
	Sprays
Viscous (thick) aqueous	Syrups
	Jellies
Hydroalcoholic	Elixirs
	Spirits
Alcoholic	Collodions
	Spirits
Glycerites
Extractives	Extracts
	Tinctures
Emulsions	Fluidextracts
	Oil-in-Water
Suspensions	Magmas & Milks
	Gels
	Mucilages

Solid Medication Dosage Forms
Tablets
Compressed	Suger-coated
	Film-coated
	Enteric-coated
Sublingual
Buccal
Effervascent
Chewable
Vaginal
Capsules	Hard gelatin
	Soft gelatin
Lozenges
Supporites	Rectal
	Vaginal
	Urethral
Semisolids	Oinments
	Creams
	Pastes

Miscellaneous Medication Dosage Forms
Poweders
Granules
Inhalants
Aerosols
Shampoos & crème rinses
Wipes & scrubs
Transdermal patches
Implants

Dosage Forms	Description
Capsules	Capsules are composed of a gelatin container. Caplet dosage forms are related closely to tablets, but they are smooth sided and are therefore easier to swallow.
Lozenges & Troche	Lozenges and troches are other forms of tablets that are not meant to be swallowed but to dissolve in the mouth, which releases the medication more slowly. Troches are larger than normal-size tablets and are flat: they usually have a chalky consistency in order to dissolve in the mouth.
Patches	Patches are solid pieces of material that hold a specific amount of medication to be released into the skin over time.
Liquids	Liquids are composed of various solutions.
	Syrups are sugar-based solutions that have medication dissolved into them.
	Elixirs contain dissolved medication in an alcohol base or water and alcohol base.
	Sprays are composed of various bases such as alcohol or water in a pump dispenser.
	Inhalants and aerosols need to be able to get medication directly to the source of inflammation.
	Emulsions are a mixture of water and oil may be used with an emulsifier to bind the two together.
	Suspensions are liquids that have very small, solid particles suspended in the base solution.
	Enemas may be administered for two different reasons-retention or evacuation.
Semisolids	Semisolids contain solids and liquids, they normally are meant for topical application.
	Creams usually have medications in a base that is part oil and part water and is meant for topical or local use.
	Lotions are thinner than creams because their base contains more water. They penetrate well into the skin and do not leave an oily residue after application.
	Ointments contain medication in a glycol or oil base. Ointments can be used rectally, topically and as an ophthalmic agent.
	Gels contain medication in a viscous liquid that easily penetrates the skin and does not leave a residue.
	Pastes contain a lesser amount of liquid base than solids. They are used for topical application and are able to ab sorb skin secretions, unlike other topical agents.
	Suppositories can be used rectally and vaginally.
	Powders do not fit neatly into semisolids. Powders are solids, yet they are packaged in some forms that allow them to be sprayed similar to liquid dosage forms.
	Injectables are used for rapid response. The onset of an injectable drug only takes a few minutes as opposed to the 45 minutes that oral medications can take to work.

Roman Numerals

Roman numerals are used in Pharmacy by practitioners on prescription drug orders and on packaging to designate DEA schedules for controlled substances. 

The Basics
A smaller number in front of a larger number means subtraction, all else means addition. For example, IV means 4, VI means 6.

You would not put more than one smaller number in front of a larger number to subtract. For example, IIV would not mean 3.

You must separate ones, tens, hundreds, and thousands as separate items. That means that 99 is XCIX, 90 + 9, but never should be written as IC. Similarly, 999 cannot be IM and 1999 cannot be MIM.

Sometimes you will see a numeral with a line over it. That means to multiply it by 1000. A numeral V with a line over it means 5000. This usage is no longer current, because the largest numbers usually expressed in the Roman system are dates.

Symbols
I	The numeral one. II is two, III is three. You seldom see IIII as 4, since IV can also mean 4, plus its shorter to write.
V	The numeral 5. IV is 4, VI is 6, VII is 7, VIII is 8.
X	The numeral 10. IX is 9, XI is 11, etc.
L	The numeral 50. XL would be 40.
C	The numeral 100. Think of Century having a hundred years. C is short for the Latin word Centum, but that's not very easy to remember.
D	The numeral 500.
M	The numeral 1000.

Roman Numerals Chart 1-100
1	I
2	II
3	III
4	IV
5	V
6	VI
7	VII
8	VIII
9	IX
10	X
15	XV
20	XX
25	XXV
30	XXX
35	XXXV
40	XL
45	XLV
50	L
55	LV
60	LX
65	LXV
70	LXX
75	LXXV
80	LXXX
85	LXXXV
90	XC
95	XCV
100	C

Brand Name Drugs and Generic Drugs

The FDA approves all drugs that are available for distribution in the U.S. to assure that they are safe and effective.

Before a new drug is approved, the manufacturer must submit a New Drug Application (NDA) to the FDA. The NDA includes:

1. Info about the drug
2. Results from human clinical trials
3. Results from animal clinical trials
4. How drugs acts in the body
5. How it is manufactured, processed and packaged

Most companies market new drugs with a trade or brand name. Lipitor is an example of a brand name for a drug that is produced and distributed by the manufacturer Pfizer.

1. The generic name for Lipitor is atrovastatin
2. Pfizer developed atrovastatin
3. Pfizer submitted a NDA to the FDA
4. FDA approved atrovastatin
5. Pfizer is granted patents for an average of 11 years.
6. Once the patent expires other drugs companies may apply for approval of generic or copies of the drug.

Generic equivalents contain the same active ingredients and have the same dosage form, strength and formulations as their brand name counterparts.

Generic drug companies must submit an Abbreviated New Drug application (ANDA). Generic manufactures must meet the same standards for:

1. Manufacturing
2. Quality
3. Labeling
4. They do not need to repeat the original research.
5. Must show bioequivalence to the brand name drug.

Generic Drug Substitution
Pharmacists are permitted to substitute the generic equivalent drug for the brand name unless the prescriber prohibits generic substitution.

Generic substitution is regulated by state laws. These laws and regulations set requirements for when pharmacists may or may not substitute therapeutically equivalent generic drugs for brand name drugs.
Indications of no substitution include:

1. “Dispense as written”
2. “DAW”
3. “no substitution”
4. “do not substitute”
5. “DNS”

Pharmacists use the “Orange Book” to find the FDA’s decision on whether or not a generic drug is therapeutically equivalent to the brand name.

Controlled Substances

Controlled substances are subject to stricter controls through Federal and State laws and regulations due to their potential for misuse, abuse, diversion, and addiction.

The Federal law regulating controlled substances is the Controlled Substance Act.

The Law and its regulations controls over the manufacture, import, export, distribution, ordering, dispensing and prescribing of controlled substances.
Pharmacies must comply with both State and Federal controlled substance laws.

Schedules of Controlled Substances
The Federal Controlled Substance Law created five classifications for controlled substances numbering I, II, III, IV, and V.

A drug is placed into a controlled Schedule based on certain criteria, such as it’s potential for abuse or addiction and its medical use.

Schedule I is the most restrictive and Schedule V is the least restrictive of the controlled substances.

Labeling Controlled Substances
The symbol that indicates a controlled substance is the capital letter “C” with the appropriate roman numeral placed inside the “C” symbol.

Dispensing Controlled Substances
For a controlled substance prescription to be valid, it must be prescribed by a licensed prescriber for a legitimate medical purpose in the normal course of the prescriber’s professional practice.

The prescribing practice must be registered with the DEA and be licensed to prescribe controlled substances by the state. Controlled substances prescription must contain:

1. The date issued
2. The patients full name & address
3. The practitioners name, address & DEA registration number
4. The drug name
5. Strength
6. Dosage form
7. Quantity prescribed
8. Direction of use
9. Number of authorized refills
10. Signature of prescriber

Federal law allows Schedule III and IV prescriptions to be refilled up to five times within six months after the issuing date.

Schedule V prescriptions may be refilled more than five times, but have a six-month the limit on refills.

Schedule II prescriptions may not be refilled and are not transferable between pharmacies.
Federal law allows schedule III, IV, and V prescriptions to be transferred from one pharmacy to another for refill (if the state permits).

Pharmacies are required to maintain complete and accurate records for all controlled substances that they purchase , receive, distribute or dispense.

Federal law requires that pharmacy to keep controlled substance records for two years and have them readily available for DEA inspection if requested. Examples of records include:

1. Invoices
2. Receipts of purchases
3. Inventory of records
4. Records of transfer

State Prescription Monitoring Programs, require pharmacies to report information on controlled substance prescriptions dispensed for drugs in Schedules II, III, IV and V. (varies from state to state.) The programs help states identify potential diversion and abuse. Required information includes:

1. Patient info
2. Prescriber info
3. Pharmacy ID
4. Prescription info

Tips: Pharmacy Law

• Manufacturers of generic drugs can market their drugs at lower prices than their brand name counterparts because they don't have new drug development and research costs that the brand name companies have.

• Pharmacy technicians must maintain the privacy and confidentiality of patients' personal health information. This requires appropriate safeguards for pharmacy patient records, discarding patient information in a secure manner, and taking reasonable precautions to maintain privacy of pharmacy conversations about patients.

A History of the FDA & Drug Regulation in the U.S.

Year	Act	Purpose
1906	Food and Drug Act	Outlaws states from buying and selling food,drinks, and drugs that have been mislabeled and tainted.
1912	Sherley Amendment	Outlaws labeling drugs with fake medical claims meant to trick the buyer.
1930	FDA	Food and Drug Administration is named.
1938	Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic (FDC) Act of 1938	Requires new drugs to be proven safe prior to marketing; starts a new system of drug regulations; requires safe limits for unavoidable poisonous substances; and allows for factory inspections.
1951	Durha-Humphrey Amendment	Defines the type of drugs that cannot be used safely without medical supervision and limits the sale to prescription only by medical professionals.
1962	Kefauver-Harris Drug Amendments	Requires manufacturers to prove that their drug are effective prior to marketing.
1972	Over-the-Counter Drug Review	Nonprescription medications must be safe, effective and appropriately labeled.
1982	Tamper-Resistant Packaging Regulations	Makes it a crime to tamper with packaged products and requires tamper-proof packaging.
1984	Drug Price Competition and Patent Term Restoration Act (Hatch-Waxman Act)	Allowed FDA to approve generic versions of brand-name drugs without repeating research to prove safety and efficacy; allowed brand-name drugs to apply for up to 5 years of additional patent protection for new drugs make up for time lost while their products were going through the FDA approval process
1988	Prescription Drug Marketing Act	Designed to eliminate diversion of products from legitimate channels of distribution and requires wholesalers to be licensed.
1997	Food and Drug Administration Modernization Act	Expands scope of agency activities and moves agency to the Department of Health and Human Services (DHHS)
2003	Medicare Prescription Drug Improvement and Modernization Act of 2003	Includes Medicare Part D which increases access to medications through private insurers.

 
Adapted from U.S. Food and Drug Administration, Center for Drug Evaluation and Research
 

Pharmacy Law

Ethical Principles
Ethical Principles guide the performance of tasks and responsibilities so they fall within a moral framework.

Ethical principles include complying with laws and regulations, maintaining competency and respecting patient privacy and confidentiality.

State Pharmacy Laws and Regulations
State pharmacy laws establish the legal requirements, restrictions and prohibitions for the practice of pharmacy.

State pharmacy laws and regulations distinguish between the tasks and responsibilities that pharmacists perform and those that the technicians are permitted to perform.

State Boards of Pharmacy
State boards of pharmacy are responsible for regulating the practice of pharmacy including pharmacies, pharmacists, pharmacy interns, and pharmacy technicians.

The state board regulates:

1. Licensing pharmacies and pharmacists
2. Registering or Licensing technicians
3. Inspecting pharmacies
4. Issuing rules and regulations
5. Investigating complaints
6. Disciplinary actions

Information on the various state boards is available through the National Association of Boards of Pharmacy (NABP)

Pharmacy Licensure
Every state requires pharmacies to have a valid current license or permit in order to operate the facility. Requirements include:

1. Record keeping
2. Security
3. A pharmacists in charge
4. A Licensed pharmacists on duty during operational hours

The categories for pharmacy licenses include:

1. Retail
2. Community
3. Institutional
4. Hospital
5. Nuclear
6. Mail-order
7. Long-term
8. Sterile compounding
9. nonresident

Most states require pharmacies that are located in a other state (i.e, nonresident pharmacies) to be licensed in the state if they mail, ship, dispense, or deliver prescriptions drugs to residents of the state.

Pharmacy Technicians
The requirements for technicians vary from state to state. Common requirements include:

1. Registration or license
2. Permitted tasks
3. Prohibited conduct
4. Qualifications for registration or license include:
5. Minimum age
6. High school diploma or equivalent
7. Completion of a training program
8. An examination

The State Board of Pharmacy in each state is the best resource for obtaining the current requirements.

Patient Counseling
State laws and regulations set the requirements for patient counseling by pharmacists regarding their prescription medications.

The offer to council differs from patient counseling.

The offer to counsel occurs when patient is asked if he/she would like to receive information from the pharmacists.

Whereas counseling is providing information to the patient.

DEA Schedule Drugs from the Top 200 Drug List

Schedule	Brand Name	Generic Name	Function
DEA Schedule II	Percocet®	Oxycodone/APAP	Pain Relief
	Concerta®	Methylphenidate	A.D.H.D.
	OxyContin®	Oxycodone	Pain Relief
	Vyvanse®	Lisdexamfetamine	A.D.H.D.
	Duragesic®	Fentanyl	Narcotic Analgesic
	Dolophine®	Methadone	Anti-addictive
	Adderall®	Amphetamine / Dextroamphetamine	ADHD / Narcolepsy
	Demerol®	Meperidine	Narcotic Analgesic
	Vicodin®	Hydrocodone/APAP	Pain Relief
DEA Schedule III	Suboxone®	Buprenorphine	Opiate Addiction
	Tylenol® #2,3,4	Codeine / APAP	Pain Relief
	AndroGel®	Testosterone	Low T (testosterone)
DEA Schedule IV	Ambien®	Zolpidem	Insomnia
	Xanax®	Alprazolam/td>	Anti-Anxiety
	Klonopin®	Clonazepam	Anti-Anxiety
	Soma®	Carisoprodol	Muscle Relaxer
	Valium®	Diazepam	Anti-Anxiety
	Ativan®	Lorazepam	Anti-Anxiety
	Lunesta®	Eszopiclone	Sleep Aid
	Restoril®	Temazepam	Sleep Aid
	Adipex®	Phentermine	Weight Loss

 

The DEA Sch. Drugs listed above are from the Top 200 list, and this is just a partial list of those Schedule Drugs.  View full list of controlled substances can be found on the Drug Enforcement Website.
 

Definition of Controlled Substance Schedules

Drugs and other substances that are considered controlled substances under the Controlled Substances Act (CSA) are divided into five schedules.

Substances are placed in their respective schedules based on whether they have a currently accepted medical use in treatment in the United States, their relative abuse potential, and likelihood of causing dependence when abused.

Schedule	Classification	Examples
Schedule I (CI)	Substances in this schedule have no currently accepted medical use in the United States, a lack of accepted safety for use under medical supervision, and a high potential for abuse.	Some examples of substances listed in Schedule I are: heroin, lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD), marijuana (cannabis), peyote, methaqualone, and 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine ("Ecstasy").
Schedule II (CII)	Substances in this schedule have a high potential for abuse which may lead to severe psychological or physical dependence.	Examples of Schedule II narcotics include: hydromorphone (Dilaudid®), methadone (Dolophine®), meperidine (Demerol®), oxycodone (OxyContin®, Percocet®), and fentanyl (Sublimaze®, Duragesic®). Other Schedule II narcotics include: morphine, opium, codeine, and hydrocodone. Examples of Schedule IIN stimulants include: amphetamine (Dexedrine®, Adderall®), methamphetamine (Desoxyn®), and methylphenidate (Ritalin®). Other Schedule II substances include: amobarbital, glutethimide, and pentobarbital.
Schedule III (CIII)	Substances in this schedule have a potential for abuse less than substances in Schedules I or II and abuse may lead to moderate or low physical dependence or high psychological dependence.	Examples of Schedule III narcotics include: products containing not more than 90 milligrams of codeine per dosage unit (Tylenol with Codeine®), and buprenorphine (Suboxone®). Examples of Schedule IIIN non-narcotics include: benzphetamine (Didrex®), phendimetrazine, ketamine, and anabolic steroids such as Depo®-Testosterone.
Schedule IV (CIV)	Substances in this schedule have a low potential for abuse relative to substances in Schedule III.	Examples of Schedule IV substances include: alprazolam (Xanax®), carisoprodol (Soma®), clonazepam (Klonopin®), clorazepate (Tranxene®), diazepam (Valium®), lorazepam (Ativan®), midazolam (Versed®), temazepam (Restoril®), and triazolam (Halcion®).
Schedule V (CV)	Substances in this schedule have a low potential for abuse relative to substances listed in Schedule IV and consist primarily of preparations containing limited quantities of certain narcotics.	Examples of Schedule V substances include: cough preparations containing not more than 200 milligrams of codeine per 100 milliliters or per 100 grams (Robitussin AC®, Phenergan with Codeine®), and ezogabine.

View Full List of Controlled Substances

Key Notes: Pharmacy Law

• If the state and federal laws or regulations differ, both laws and regulations must be followed, including the more stringent requirements, whether federal or state. 

• The qualifications for pharmacy technician registration or licensure generally include minimum age, high school graduation or the equivalent, completion of training program, including pharmacy employer training programs, and an  examination.

• State pharmacy laws do not permit pharmacy  technicians to perform pharmacy tasks and responsibilities that are limited to pharmacists and require the professional judgement, education, and training of a pharmacist.

• Patient counseling must be provided by the pharmacists. Technicians are not authorized to counsel patients on their medications.

• Prescription monitoring programs require pharmacies to submit information on controlled-substance prescriptions to help states identify potential diversions and abuse.

• Pharmacists use the "Orange Book" to find the FDA's determination that a particular manufacturer's generic drug is therapeutically equivalent to the brand name.  

Key Terms: Pharmacy Law

Controlled Substances - Drugs are chemicals whose possession and use are regulated under the Federal Controlled Substances Act and by state controlled substance laws and regulations. Controlled substances are subject to stricter regulations than other prescription and non-prescription drugs.

Drug Enforcement Administration (DEA): The federal agency that administers and enforces federal laws for controlled substances such as narcotics and other dangerous drugs and illegal substances. The DEA is part of the U.S. Department of Justice.

Legend Drug - A drug that is required by federal law to be dispensed by prescription only. It is the old term for drugs that are now identified as “Rx Only”.

Prescription Monitoring Programs (PMPs): or prescription drug monitoring programs (PDMPs) are state-run programs that store and distribute prescriptions for federally controlled substances. These serve physicians, physician assistants, nurse practitioners, dentists and other prescribers, as well as law-enforcement agencies, and support legitimate medical use of controlled substances while limiting drug abuse and diversion.

Pharmacy Practice Settings

The profession of pharmacy is practiced in many environments, which are commonly divided into ambulatory care and institutional settings.

1. Ambulatory Care, or outpatient, settings serve patients living in their own homes or similar situations and include community clinics, home care and mail order.
2. Institutional or inpatient settings are those in which patients reside in a facility where they receive long or short-term care from health professionals.  

Community Pharmacy
The community pharmacy is the corner drug store or the local retail or grocery store pharmacy.

Mail-Order Pharmacy
Pharmacist and technicians also work in mail-order facilities, through which patients have their prescriptions filled and refilled through the mail. Mail-order pharmacies are really more like warehouses with pharmacists and technicians.

Hospital Pharmacy
Pharmacists are directly involved with patient care and have daily interactions with physicians, nurses, other care givers.

Pharmacists develop plans of pharmaceutical care, medication management and with other caregivers, monitor the patients drug therapy.

In addition to direct patient care, pharmacist evaluate trends in medication and physician prescribing, develop guidelines for medication use, educate patients and healthcare professionals, and implement and maintain drug distribution.

In the hospital setting Pharmacy technicians can:

1. Enter physician med orders into the computer
2. Prepare IV drug admixtures
3. Repackage and label unit dose medications
4. Restock automated dispensing units
5. Deliver medications
6. General paper work  

Home Health Care
Home health care is defined as “physician ordered services provided to patients at their residences, be it in their own homes or any other setting in which the patient lives. Such services include:

1. Personal care
2. Hospice & Respite Care
3. Shopping assistance
4. Drug and infusion therapy
5. Speech, physical and occupational therapy
6. Technician duties in a home care setting may include
7. Preparing sterile injectable products
8. Maintaining computerized patient profiles
9. Delivering medications and supplies to a patient’s home.

Long-Term Care
Long-term care facilities are those institutions where patients stay for extended periods. They include:

1. Nursing Homes
2. Psychiatric or behavioral health institutions
3. Intermediate care facilities for mentally disabled patients
4. Skilled nursing facilities

Most of these facilities do not have pharmacies on site but contract with local community pharmacies for needed services; pharmacists and technicians thus do not have direct patient interaction.

Specialty Pharmacy Services
Just as pharmacists may choose to specialize in an area of pharmacy (e.g, ambulatory care, cardiology, infectious diseases, nutrition, oncology, organ transplant, or pediatrics), so may technicians. Technicians may specialize in areas  such as:

1. Inventory purchasing and management
2. Sterile product preparations
3. Surgical Pharmacy
4. Nuclear Pharmacy
5. Veterinary Pharmacy
6. Non-sterile (extemporaneous) compounding 

Key Notes: Intro to Pharmacy

• Pharmacists are ultimately responsible for the technicians' activities and performance and are legally held liable for the technicians work.

• Training prerequisites for pharmacy technicians vary from state to state and from employer to employer.

• Most consumers believe that all pharmacy technicians have been trained and certified before they are allowed to prepare prescriptions.

Ten Characteristics of a Professional

To the ethical principles, ASHP adds ten characteristics of a professional. These characteristics are applicable to pharmacy technicians.

1. Knowledge and skills of the profession
2. Commitment to self-improvement of skills and knowledge
3. Service orientation
4. Pride and service to the profession
5. Covenantal relationship with patient
6. Creativity and innovation
7. Conscience and trustworthiness
8. Accountability for his/her work
9. Ethically sound decision making
10. Leadership

© American Pharmacists Association (APhA)

Code of Ethics for Pharmacy Technicians

This code outlines ten guiding principles that pharmacy technicians are encouraged to follow. Violations of these values and qualities not only is unprofessional but may be against federal or state law.

Preamble

Pharmacy Technicians are healthcare professionals who assist pharmacists in providing the best possible care for patients. The principles of this code, which apply to pharmacy technicians working in any and all settings, are based on the application and support of the moral obligations that guide the pharmacy profession in relationships with patients, healthcare professionals and society.

Principles

1. 1. A pharmacy technician's first consideration is to ensure the health and safety of the patient, and to use knowledge and skills to the best of his/her ability in serving patients.
2. 2. A pharmacy technician supports and promotes honesty and integrity in the profession, which includes a duty to observe the law, maintain the highest moral and ethical conduct at all times and uphold the ethical principles of the profession.
3. 3. A pharmacy technician assists and supports the pharmacists in the safe and efficacious and cost effective distribution of health services and healthcare resources.
4. 4. A pharmacy technician respects and values the abilities of pharmacists, colleagues and other healthcare professionals.
5. 5. A pharmacy technician maintains competency in his/her practice and continually enhances his/her professional knowledge and expertise.
6. 6. A pharmacy technician respects and supports the patient's individuality, dignity, and confidentiality.
7. 7. A pharmacy technician respects the confidentiality of a patient's records and discloses pertinent information only with proper authorization.
8. 8. A pharmacy technician never assists in dispensing, promoting or distribution of medication or medical devices that are not of good quality or do not meet the standards required by law.
9. 9. A pharmacy technician does not engage in any activity that will discredit the profession, and will expose, without fear or favor, illegal or unethical conduct of the profession.
10. 10. A pharmacy technician associates with and engages in the support of organizations, which promote the profession of pharmacy through the utilization and enhancement of pharmacy technicians.

Source: The Pharmacy Professionals

Code of Conduct

As pharmacy technicians, and under the supervision of a licensed pharmacist, PTCB certificants and candidates have the obligation to: maintain high standards of integrity and conduct; accept responsibility for their actions; continually seek to improve their performance in the workplace; practice with fairness and honesty; and, encourage others to act in an ethical manner consistent with the standards and responsibilities set forth below. Pharmacy technicians assist pharmacists in dispensing medications and remain accountable to supervising pharmacists with regard to all pharmacy activities, and will act consistent with all applicable laws and regulations.

A. Responsibilities Relating to Legal Requirements.
B. Responsibilities to PTCB/Compliance with Organizational Policies and Rules. 
C. Responsibilities to the Public and Employers.

View and download the PDF Code of Conduct document.

Tips: Intro to Pharmacy

• Whether or not your state requires technician certification, becoming certified and maintaining the certification is advantageous. The knowledge and skills that are tested by either PTCE or the ExCPT are pertinent to any technician working in ant pharmacy practice setting. Becoming certified demonstrates a commitment to your profession and to your career.

• Become an active member of your local pharmacy technician organization; regularly read pharmacy  technician related publications; such as newsletters and journals; and find opportunities for continuing education.

• To perform duties in a competent manner, technicians develop the ability to to determine the best course of action in a specific situation. Applying critical thinking allows pharmacy technicians to prioritize, problem-solving, and troubleshoot issues that arise that may not require the judgement of a pharmacists but that still call for careful attention. 

• Demonstrating an eagerness to learn and take on more responsibilities can help advance your career. 

Pharmacy Technician Certification

Some states require registration of pharmacy technicians, whereas other states require certification; still others are considering the matter. There is no national requirement for certification at this time.

Most consumers believe that all pharmacy technicians have been trained and certified before they are allowed to prepare prescriptions.

Technicians who wish to become certified ma take the national Pharmacy Technician Certification Exam (PTCE) offered by the PTCB. To take the exam, candidates must have earned a high school diploma (GED or foreign diploma) and submit the appropriate form, fee, and supporting documents. Candidates are not eligible if they have been convicted of a drug - or pharmacy- related  felony, or have had any felony convictions at any time during the last five years before applying for the PTCE.

The PTCE is a two hour, closed book, computer based exam consisting of eighty multiple choice questions plus ten non-scored questions. Each question has four possible answers from which to choose , with only one being the best, or correct answer. The score is based on the most correctly answered questions.

The questions are written to assess the knowledge and skills that are deemed necessary to perform the work of pharmacy technicians. The exam divides these activities into three functions areas:

1. i. Assisting the pharmacist in serving patients, including activities related to dispensing prescriptions, distributing medications, and collecting and organizing information.
2. ii. Maintaining medication and inventory control systems pertaining to activities related to purchasing medications and supplies, controlling inventory, and storing, preparing, and distributing medications according to policies and procedures.
3. iii. Participating in the administration and management of pharmacy practice, including administrative activities that deal with such issues as operations, human resources, facilities and equipment, and information systems.

Of the scored questions on the examination, 66% of the exam tests on topics in function area i, 22% on topics in function area ii, and the remaining 12% on topics in function area iii. Candidates who pass the exam may use the designation CPht (certified pharmacy technician) after their names.

To maintain the certification, technicians must re-certify every two years by completing at least twenty hours of continuing  education. A maximum of ten hours may be earned at the technician’s workplace under the direct supervision of a pharmacist. These hours must be special assignments or training; regular work hours do not apply. At least one hour of continuing education must be related to pharmacy law. Refer to the PTCB Website to verify current eligibility requirements and test specifics.

Key Terms: Intro to Pharmacy

Accreditation is the process in which certification of competency, authority, or credibility is presented. The standards for accreditation are set by a peer review board whose members include faculty from various accredited colleges and universities.

Certification: A voluntary process by which a non-governmental agency or association grants recognition to an individual who has met certain predetermined qualifications specified by the agency or association.

Health-System Pharmacy: The practice of pharmacy that is part of a health-system. A health-system is two or more health care practice settings (e.g., hospital, home care, ambulatory clinic) that have a working relationship with each other and are managed or owned by the same business entity.

Home Health Care: Physician-ordered health care services provided to a patient in the home or other settings in which the patient lives.

Licensure: The process by which an agency of the government grants permission to an individual to engage in a given occupations upon finding that the applicant has attained a degree of competency necessary to ensure that public health, safety, and welfare will be protected.

Medication Therapy Management (MTM): A service or group of services that optimizes therapeutic outcomes for a patient. Such services include: assessment of a patients health status; formulation of a medication treatment plan; selection; initiation, modification, or administration of medication therapy.

Pharmaceutical Care involves cooperation between the pharmacist, the patient, and other health care professionals in designing, implementing, and monitoring a therapeutic medication plan.

Pharmacist: a person licensed to prepare and dispense drugs and medicines; druggist; apothecary; pharmaceutical chemist.

Pharmacy:

1. Also called pharmaceutics. the art and science of preparing and dispensing drugs and medicines.
2. a drugstore.

A Pharmacy Technician assists pharmacist by performing routine, day-to-day functions of the practice of pharmacy that do not require the judgement of a pharmacist.

Registration: A pharmacy technician may be required to be registered with a state board of pharmacy before being legally able to carry out some pharmacy functions.

Who regulates Pharmacy in the US?

Pharmacy  is regulated by several agencies. As pharmacy Technicians' it is mandatory to generally know which agency does what to prepare for the PTCB exam.

These agencies do more than what is listed below. We're just covering the areas that involve pharmacy. 

FDA
Food and Drug Administration

• Approve new drugs to be sold in the US
• Process New Drug Applications (NDA)
• Regulate package inserts
• Regulate advertising of drugs
• Issue recalls
• Federal agency

DEA
Drug Enforcement Agency

• Federal Agency (U.S. Dept. of Justice)
• Enforce the CSA (controlled substances act)
• Track controlled substances manufactured and sold
• Investigates all violations involving controlled substances
• Set the DEA Sch. Definitions
• Issue DEA Numbers

BOP
Board of Pharmacy (Individual States)

• Regulate licensing of Pharmacists
• Regulate licensing of Pharmacy Technicians
• Set state laws / requirements
• Outline the operating guidelines in the pharmacy
• Investigate violations of the operating guidelines
• Determine state regulated controlled substances*
• State agency

* States may control drugs not controlled by DEA.

The Joint Commission (Formerly JCAHO)
Joint Commission on Accreditation of Healthcare Organizations

• Watches over Healthcare Organizations
  Third Party Auditors / Regulators for insurance Providers 

How to Remember Who Does What
When trying to determine which agency regulates what, first ask, if the question involves a controlled substance. If id does then the DEA will likely be the answer. If the question involved a drug that is not controlled, FDA will likely be the answer. If the question sounds state specific or involves licensing, then the BOP is likely the answer.